Chapter One
Introduction and Overview
U.S. Schools Are Falling Behind
The United States of America is arguably the world leader in income, wealth, military power, and cultural influence. It hovers near the top of international rankings in higher education, scientific and medical discoveries, and the productivity of many of its industries. Yet U.S. schools are behind those of most other economically advanced countries in both effectiveness and efficiency. By the end of high school, U.S. academic achievement lags behind that of most member countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development-a group that includes most of the world''s economically advanced countries.
In addition to being ineffective, American public schools are inefficient or unproductive, which is to say they get little return on taxpayers'' dollars. Their per student costs rank among the top two or three countries in recent OECD surveys and have risen substantially over the last few decades. This pattern of low and declining efficiency is at odds with most other American enterprises, in which competition has generally led to improved quality and declining (inflation-adjusted) costs.
By widely accepted standards of what educated citizens should know, U.S. students perform poorly in civics, geography, history, and other subjects. Compared to students in other countries, older American students do poorly in mathematics, science, and foreign languages. Yet American students are not behind in the earliest years of schooling. Their achievement, relative to students in other countries, declines during the years when learning is chiefly the responsibility of schools. Indeed, the "value-added" gains in reading, mathematics, and science for American students are generally among the worst of students living in affluent countries. These findings are becoming better known to the public, parents, and legislators.
The latest available data indicate that the percentage of schools "in need of improvement" under the generally low standards imposed by states and the federal No Child Left Behind Act of 2002 has increased from 13 percent to 17 percent. They and sharply increasing numbers of other schools face escalating sanctions, such as having to inform parents that their children are in failing schools, being required to allow parents to transfer their children to successful schools, replacing staff, and, if failure continues, possible closure.
Despite such present and prospective sanctions, despite widespread recognition of the achievement problem, despite higher school spending, the National Assessment of Educational Progress (referred to as "the nation''s report card") reported in February 2007 that reading achievement of American 12th grade students had declined from 1992 through 2005. Standards, instead of rising, have declined; despite the drop in students'' performance, teachers are giving them higher grades.
Poor high school performance leads to poor college performance. According to the National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education, only 68 percent of ninth graders graduate on time; only 40 percent enroll directly in college. Of high school seniors who took the American College Test for admission to college in 2006, only 51 percent met the college-readiness benchmark for reading. Of those who failed the reading benchmark, 84 percent also failed the mathematics benchmark, and 95 percent failed the science benchmark. Sorting the results by racial-ethnic groups, 59 percent of whites passed, as did 54 percent of Asians, 36 percent of Native Americans, 33 percent of Hispanics, and 21 percent of African Americans. As a consequence of such poor preparation, some one million full-time freshmen enter colleges and universities each year, but fewer than 4 in 10 finish in four years, and only 6 in 10 finish in six years.
Because of poor prior preparation in high school, college graduates perform poorly: This past August [2006], the National Commission on the Future of Higher Education reported that "the quality of student learning-as measured by assessments of college graduates-is declining." It cited a stunning finding of the National Assessment of Adult Literacy: Only 31 percent of college-educated Americans qualify as "prose literate," meaning that at they can fully comprehend something as simple as a newspaper story. This number has shrunk from 40 percent a decade ago, apparently because the flood of badly educated new graduates is dragging down the average.
In addition to being ineffective and inefficient, schools can be dangerous places, particularly those in big cities and those serving predominantly poor and minority students. In a recent poll, 73 percent of low-income parents and 46 percent of higher-income parents said they worried "a lot" about their children''s exposure to drugs and alcohol at school. Similarly, 65 percent of low-income parents and 39 percent of higher-income parents worried a great deal about their children being assaulted or even kidnapped.
Declining Productivity
U.S. citizens pay more per student for K-12 public education than nearly all other economically advanced countries, and the real (inflation-adjusted) per student costs of that schooling have increased substantially over the last several decades. Additional value is normally expected for additional money, but rising spending hasn''t helped American schools to achieve more.
The productivity of schools in the United States-the ratio of achievement to spending-is necessarily declining since achievement (the numerator) remains relatively low and spending (the denominator) is rising. It is costing more and more to get similar or worse results. According to research conducted by Harvard University economist Caroline Hoxby, the productivity of public schools in the United States fell between 55 and 73 percent between 1970-71 and 1998-99.
This ratio underestimates the decline in school productivity because it does not take into account the rise in average scores on intelligence tests designed to measure children''s capacity to succeed in school. This increase is attributable to better nutrition and housing and to rising levels of income, wealth, and intellectual stimulation at home in the last three decades. Productivity should have improved even if the schools did nothing different.
Academic achievement matters because a country''s achievement test scores in mathematics and science are strongly correlated with and predictive of a country''s economic growth. Economic growth, in turn, is linked to objective measures of a country''s quality of life in such fields as health, housing, and child rearing. Thus, poor U.S. achievement test scores are not merely of academic interest. They have real-world consequences for the welfare of millions of children and young adults. Poor schools even threaten older generations whose Social Security and pensions depend on a healthy economy and well-educated workforce.
These problems and prospects have not escaped the notice of employers and citizens. A national Conference Board survey polled 431 employers of recently hired high school and college graduates in 2006 and concluded that they generally lacked requisite general knowledge and basic skills of reading comprehension and mathematical computation. Graduates also generally lacked important skills in communication, collaboration, and critical thinking. Perhaps as a consequence, only 3 in 10 voters in a 2006 national exit poll expected their children to enjoy a better standard of living than they do, contrary to much of the American experience of the past.
International Talent Competition
Modern economies pay huge premiums for advanced, often specialized, knowledge and skills, or "high levels of human capital." Such capital, which can apply to all areas of life, constitutes a vast and growing fraction of the value of modern firms and other organizations. As The Economist notes:
The value of "intangible" assets-everything from skilled workers to patents to know-how-has ballooned from 20% of the value of companies in the S&P 500 to 70% today. The proportion of American workers doing jobs that call for complex skills [has] thus grown three times as fast as employment in general. As other economies move in the same direction, the global demand is rising quickly.... The imminent retirement of the baby-boomers means that companies will lose large numbers of experienced workers in a short space of time.... By one count half the top people at America''s 500 leading companies will go in the next five years.
As Table 1-1 shows, higher levels of human capital indicated by education levels are strongly associated with wages. Workers with advanced professional degrees, for example, earned wages more than five times those of workers who didn''t finish high school. Only those with the highest levels of education-those with master''s degrees in business administration and those with doctorates in academic scholarship, law, and medicine-averaged higher inflation-adjusted wage gains from 2001 through 2005. Unlike past generations, most workers actually lost rather than gained in real wage income. The growth of national and international competition, particularly from rising East and South Asia, as well as the Internet and other new media, allows more highly educated "superstars" in business, finance, law, entertainment, sports, and other fields to exercise their specialized talents more widely and remuneratively-often in organizations with worldwide reach. Their wages and other income often rise rapidly. In short, on average, the highly educated and rich get richer.
Attaining high levels of education and income usually requires strong K-12 preparation. Those without advanced mathematics (including calculus) in high school are unlikely to succeed in the hard sciences or engineering. Those without strong verbal skills are unlikely to succeed in law. Without a solid core of basic knowledge and skills, and without the capacity and discipline for hard, focused study built up in the early years, students are unlikely to succeed in later education and in advanced careers (though, of course, there are exceptions such as Oracle''s Larry Ellison, Microsoft''s Bill Gates, and Apple''s Steve Jobs, none of whom graduated from college).
Both individuals and countries with advanced school-acquired human capital have benefited enormously, particularly in the last few decades, as free markets have taken better hold beyond North America and Western Europe. The OECD, for example, reported trends in schooling among its affluent member countries and found that education in East Asia continues rapidly to expand and improve. Two decades ago, South Korea was one of the poorest education performers. Today, its high school students, on average, outscore most of those in other economically advanced countries in mathematics and science.
Among the main industrialized countries, moreover, Korea ranks first in the percentage of high school completers between the ages of 25 and 34-97 percent. The head of the Education Indicators and Analysis division of the OECD, Andreas Schleicher, observed, "Tomorrow''s high-skilled jobs in innovation and R&D-and the high wages that go with them-will be relocated in Asia unless the European Union and the U.S. make significant progress."
The consequences of East Asia''s higher standards and graduation rates are already substantially apparent. According to The Economist, "The real driver of the world economy has been Asia, which has accounted for over half of the world''s growth since 2001" [through 2005] in contrast to America''s contribution of only 13 percent of the growth.
The benefits of strong K-12 education systems are not restricted to individual and national income. Higher achievement appears to reduce child and adult mortality and to improve health throughout the lifespan.
American Immigrants
The American economy has long benefited from the immigration of talented and ambitious people. Today, the highest levels of economically and technologically significant U.S. talent are often found among immigrants rather than American-born workers. Half of the Nobel Prizes that went to Americans, for example, were awarded to immigrants; more than half of the Ph.D.s working in America are immigrants; and "a quarter of Silicon Valley companies were started by Indians and Chinese."
But the United States may not be able to depend on continuing talent immigration. A survey of international firms showed that between 25 and 82 percent planned to increase the amount of research and development they conduct in China and India in automotive engineering, consumer products, information technology, media and entertainment, industrial goods, telecommunications, and financial services.
Missing their families or seeing opportunity back home, talented immigrants are now more likely to return. Returnees from America, for example, founded 3 in 10 of Taiwan''s new companies. Lower labor costs in developing countries serve as magnets. Indian college graduates are paid roughly 12 percent of the salaries earned by their American counterparts. Because Indians, on average, also work longer hours than Americans, firms can "buy almost ten Indian brains for the price of one American one."
For these and other reasons, the once dominant old-line U.S. unionized industries have steadily declined. The percentage of employed wage and salary workers who are members of unions declined from 20.1 to 14.0 percent from 1983 to 2005 (although 4 in 10 government workers were unionized in 2005). In January 2006 General Motors reported its largest annual loss in more than a decade in the face of competition from Asia and falling sales. In a watershed moment in the same year, GM was finally eclipsed by Toyota as the world''s number-one automaker after a 40-year decline in its market share.
Similarly, Chrysler was forced to merge with (German) Daimler-Benz, and Bill Ford now faces the prospect of presiding over the bankruptcy of his eponymous company. Long bound by tough union contracts, Ford declared, "From now on, our products will be designed and built to satisfy the customer, not just to fill a factory." (Apparently, when all else fails, customers are considered.)
All this goes to show that American citizens face increased international competition. They cannot depend on the major industries that formerly led the world to continue without a well-educated workforce. Nor can they depend on immigrants or the present K-12 school system to save the day without effective reforms.
School Choice
Because high levels of knowledge and skill increasingly determine individual and national success, Americans and others are keenly interested in changes in schools that may be effective in increasing youngsters'' achievement. Opinion polls, discussed in subsequent chapters, show that majorities of adults are concerned about low school standards and student achievement levels. Parents are particularly concerned. Thanks to the spread of "school report cards" and the disclosure required by states and the federal No Child Left Behind Act, more parents than ever before are aware that their children are attending failing schools. This information is changing the terms of the national debate over school reform.
Strong majorities of parents favor programs that enable parents to choose the schools, public or private, that their children attend, with public funding following the student. Parents also favor holding schools accountable for results. A majority of parents say they would send their children to private schools if they could afford the tuition. And, perhaps a sign of growing dissatisfaction with public schools, a large and growing number of parents are homeschooling their children. About 1.2 million children, or 2 percent of age-eligible youngsters, are currently homeschooled.
Discontent with public schools is reflected in most states'' legislation and efforts to expand school choice, but these efforts have been fought, usually successfully, by public school boards, teachers'' unions, and administrators and their allies. The federal No Child Left Behind Act and new laws in a growing number of states require authorities to give students in repeatedly failing public schools the choice of transferring to other public or private schools. Even though states and districts often evade this requirement, enrollment in voucher, education tax credit, and charter school programs is growing rapidly, though from relatively small numbers, in cities across the country.
Because of the growing interest in school choice and its importance for public policy and the nation''s future, this book assesses a broad range of school choice outcomes, focusing particularly on achievement test performance, costs, and parental and public opinion. It also brings together research on "market effects," that is, the effects that competition from charter schools, voucher programs, and private schools as a whole have on traditional public schools.
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Excerpted from School Choiceby HERBERT J. WALBERG Copyright © 2007 by Cato Institute. Excerpted by permission.
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